Aromatic Alchemists: The Legacy of the Gandhikas in Ancient India

Perfumery was a significant trade activity in ancient and pre-medieval India. The trade involved the production of a variety of perfumes, including blended incense, aromatic oils, and scented pastes. It also included the identification, collection, and trading of aromatics. The perfumers, known as “gandhikas,” played a key role in this thriving enterprise. Information about their lives and influence can be found in inscriptions and ancient texts dating back to the Mauryan period. This essay focuses on the period before the discovery of distillation, during which perfumers were mainly involved in combining different raw materials. They were successful traders and entrepreneurs, primarily based in urban trade centres.

In the inscriptional sources that have been found, H. C. Satyarthi mentions a Jaina inscription from North India in Prakrit. It tells the story of a gandhika named Kumarabhatti, who established Vardhamana’s images after being persuaded by Kumaramitra. Similarly, M.N. Deshpande talks about the Pitalkhora inscriptions, before the advent of Satavhanas, that mention the gift of a pillar by Mitadeva, a gandhika from Pratishthana. It has been highlighted that Indian perfumers were also druggists. Thus, Indian perfumes and drugs were highly sought-after trade commodities. Another inscription from Karle mentions the gift of a cave door by a gandhika called Simhadatta from Dhenukakata, which was the home of donors to cave temples.

The ancient city of Kalinga (modern-day Orissa) was a significant trade centre, particularly known for its overseas trade. Perfumery was a thriving trade activity in the region. Inscriptions reveal that perfumes were exported to other areas and also offered as gandha (sandal paste) and dhupa (incense) to the gods. The Nagari copper plates of Anangabhimadeva III have mentioned those who practised perfumery as an occupation.

Many inscriptional sources mention endowments made by the gandhikas, indicating that Indian perfumers were part of an affluent merchant class and were skilled craftsmen. For example, in Amravati, an inscription refers to a chetiyakhamba (chaitya pillar) donated by a gandhika, along with his sons and daughters. Some inscriptions from Mathura also mention the donations made by the gandhikas, underscoring the prosperity of this class.

(Chaityakhamba donated by the gandhika Samgha along with his sons and daughters; Source: The Trustees of the British Museum)

Apart from the inscriptional sources, there are numerous references to perfumers in Buddhist canonical and narrative texts. Milindpanho mentions dealers of perfumes as inhabitants of towns. In another metaphorical context, there is a reference to gandhapana (perfume shop/bazaar) in the City of Dharma. Angavijja, on the other hand, talks about the cosmetic makers (prasadhaka) and gandhikas.  These commodities enjoyed popularity amongst the nagarakas. As James McHugh pointed out, Mahavastu, which dates to around the second century BCE, mentions perfumers in its subnarrative of previous births of the Buddha. The story describes a monk who, out of jealousy, defames another, but later seeks to repent by asking for donations to use as offerings. He receives money and then spends it on kesara ( a scented powder) purchased from two perfumers. This narrative portrays perfumers as notable traders in a prosperous imaginary town and as devout Buddhists supplying materials for honouring Buddha. Later, it is revealed that these perfumers are reborn as devout disciples of the Buddha.

In another ancient text, the Gandavyuhasutra, the layman Sudhana is sent by the Bodhisattva Manjusri to meet a kalyanamitra, a spiritual mentor, who gives him some instruction and then sends him to another mentor. In this process, he visits many mentors, two of whom are perfumers. The text describes the profession of these perfumers in great detail, emphasizing their knowledge of sarvagandhayukti (preparations/recipes) and their status as the gandhikashresthin (senior merchants). Additionally, the Buddhist monk Upagupta is said to have been the son of a perfumer named Gupta, signifying an urban and affluent background.

What could be the reason for Buddhist texts repeatedly mentioning the perfumers? James McHugh highlights that before the perfume-centric temple worship in Hinduism, the market for aromatics was provided by the patronage of the gandhikas to Buddhist and Jaina sites and the stupa cult. Moreover, flowers and scented materials need to be renewed as offerings, thus allowing frequent and modest donations. Hence, more devotees would have been able to get involved in scented offerings compared to gems and other precious offerings. Lastly, a major Buddhist site may have sustained an economy based on perfume and garland shops.

Though not talked about in extensive detail, perfumers have also been mentioned in non-Buddhist literature. Perfumery and its practitioners have been alluded to in the Ramayana. In the Ayodhya Kand, when Bharata leaves the city in pursuit of Rama, who has been exiled, people from all walks of life and occupations follow him, including the gandhopajivin (men who make their living from perfumes) and dhupakas (incense makers). Haramekhala, an important source on perfumery, mentions that the Yavanas (either referring to the Hellenic people or the Arabs) were experts at blending perfumes.

The qualities needed to become a gandhika in ancient India focused on a set of skills necessary for a professional perfumer. The perfumer had to be literate since the manuals describing the recipes consisted of technical jargon with combinatorics. Additionally, the Indian perfumer displayed exceptional salesmanship and was a skilled businessman. It has also been emphasized that gandhikas were often itinerant, travelling from one place to another to sell their products. The Kamasutra, in the section for courtesans, describes how a courtesan should be able to make alliances with certain people to help her advance her professional aims and avoid problems. These include perfumers, barbers, and brewers, among others. Yashodhara, a 13th-century commentator, explained that these people had access to other people’s houses, implying that the gandhikas were mobile traders. Until relatively recently, one could spot a perfumer carrying portable attar bottles visiting different houses, especially during the festivals of Diwali and Dussehra, especially in towns and villages.

(Indian Perfume Sellers, Gouache Drawing; Source: Wellcome Collection, JSTOR)

Eventually, we come across a great many ancient texts, usually in Sanskrit, that describe and talk about the art of perfumery. From the Vedas, which mention garlands and scented ointments to be used by specific people, to the Arthashastra, which describes many fragrant drugs, perfumes have been a part of Sanskrit literature since the beginning. The Brihat Samhita has a chapter dedicated to gandhayukti or the preparation of perfumes. Many Ayurvedic texts, including the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, mention scented drugs and perfumes that were used for improving complexion and as deodorants. Hence, a gandhika might have been well-read enough to understand the technicalities of these texts. He ought to have been able to identify the synonyms for aromatics; he would have been able to evaluate and identify raw materials and work out their composition to prepare suitable drugs and scents.

The literary and inscriptional evidence shows that the gandhikas were part of a thriving merchant community, mainly based in urban centres. They were predominantly male, and a city was considered incomplete without a perfumer. They had a significant impact on urban life, being knowledgeable men skilled in both the production and trade of aromatics. Some were mobile traders who travelled to different places as part of their trade practice. It is also possible that they belonged to a specific caste or practised a hereditary profession. In pre-modern India, many wealthy households, royal courts, and temples employed in-house staff to prepare fragrances, and the perfumers may have only supplied the raw materials. The tradition of perfume-making continues in several temples today, especially in Southern India. 

(An Indian Muslim Perfume Seller and his wife; Source: Wellcome Collection, JSTOR)

In conclusion, the perfumery trade in ancient and pre-medieval India emerges as a vibrant and crucial aspect of its cultural and economic landscape. From the bustling urban centres to the sacred sites of Buddhism and Jainism, gandhikas wielded significant influence as skilled artisans and astute entrepreneurs. Their expertise extended beyond mere craftsmanship; it encompassed a deep understanding of aromatics, blending techniques, and trade dynamics, as evidenced by both literary references and inscriptions. The legacy of the gandhikas persists through centuries, resonating in the ongoing traditions of perfume-making in temples and ceremonial contexts across the Indian subcontinent. Their story illuminates a dynamic era where craftsmanship, commerce, and cultural heritage converged, leaving an indelible mark on the historical tapestry of ancient India. 

References:

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