By Chanchal Kale
Since time immemorial, civilizations have arisen along or close to streams and Riverbanks. Easy access to water largely determined where towns and cities first emerged. Rivers serve as important boundaries between neighbouring lands, often becoming political borders between the countries. They also facilitate commerce and communication, linking areas of civilization through efficient water transport. In addition to being the cradle of civilizations, rivers have also played a crucial role in the evolution of the human species, a fact that is often overlooked.
Just as great civilizations once emerged along the banks of major rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Ganges, and Nile, it’s possible that the ancestors of humans also originated near riversides. Rivers are common landscape features that not only provide the essential environment for sustaining aquatic life but also shape the structure and diversity of both riparian (riverbank) and non-riparian habitats.
Consequently, rivers can impact the origins, evolution, adaptation, and distribution of both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. In the Indian context, the study of Narmada basin has resulted in discovery of hominin remains, which invigorated interest of many paleoanthropologist and archaeologists in the central Narmada Valley. Archaeologist A.R. Sankhyan argues that the current understanding of human evolution in South Asia greatly owes to the central Narmada valley, which stands unique for gifting us unambiguous Middle to Late Pleistocene hominin fossils in association with numerous mammalian fauna and Palaeolithic implements.
Formation of Narmada River Valley
Archaeologists work to reconstruct the past by studying physical objects that have survived through time. The survival of any object for hundreds of thousands of years typically requires extraordinary circumstances. Therefore, understanding the processes that form archaeological sites is considered crucial. The Narmada River flows through the middle of the Indian subcontinent, traversing a rift known as the Narmada Rift, which is formed between the Vindhya (North) and Satpura (south) mountains. This rift traditionally marks the dividing line between northern and southern India. Some geographers argue that the rift was created by the bending of the northern part of the Indian tectonic plate during the formation of the Himalayas.
A.A. Khan and Maria Aziz suggest that changes in climate, topography, and landscape, combined with block faulting and the rising and sinking of platforms, have created conditions that favour the accumulation of thick sediment sequences. These sequences are conducive to the preservation of both terrestrial and aquatic fossils. Furthermore, Hay and Pickford argue that the local source rocks and sediments, which comprise carbonate and clay-limestone, contribute to the exceptional preservation of fossils and footprints. This is because the fine-grained ashes and carbonate compounds present in these sediments lithify quickly. As the rift valley continues to sink, the geology of the area changes. Consequently, the path of the Narmada River today may differ from the path it followed millennia ago. This explains why archaeological sites are often located at a distance from the current riverbank.
Geological and Ecological Importance of Narmada Basin
G.L. Badam and A.R. Sankhyan argue that the wide distribution of fossils across both horizontal and vertical layers of the Narmada basin indicates a significantly large area of habitation that was occupied for an extended period. This distribution also suggests that similar ecological niches, climatic conditions, and geographical histories are found throughout much of Central and Southern India.
Quaternary sedimentation in the Narmada Valley reflects a notable shift in the regional climate from cold and dry to warm and humid. Archaeologists such as Khan and Aziz provide evidence supporting the idea that this warm climatic phase persisted for a long time. A. Nandi further elaborated that the abundance of fern spores, along with fungal spores, suggests a humid climate and the presence of moist habitats.
The emerging picture of the paleoecology of the region can be extended to include insights about macro invertebrates and mega herbivores that roamed the Central Narmada Valley. Many of the faunal forms appear to be late survivors from the Shiwaliks, having migrated to more suitable areas in India—especially the Narmada–Godavari complex—when conditions in the northwest became unfavourable due to glaciations. The ice sheets resulting from Pleistocene glaciations acted as physical and climatic barriers, hindering the northward movement of animals while facilitating their southward migration as pointed out by G.L. Badam. However, this impressive assemblage of animals was not indigenous to India. Many species of European and Central Asian origin migrated to India during glacial periods.
The Vindhyan Supergroup of Narmada Basin is rich in quartzite which was also used as raw material for making stone tools. Concentration of most sites in this region possibly indicates low mobility. The Lower Palaeolithic sites are abundant in this region while are rare in the Deccan traps which are rich in basalt depositions. This abundance is believed to be due to a higher density of human occupation in the area. Sankhyan even posits that the Central Narmada Valley is the only place in South Asia where human fossils from the Pleistocene era have been found. Thus, the valley served as a crucial stop along the migration route from Africa to Southeast Asia for hominin species.
However, Sheila Mishra suggests that the scarcity of Lower Palaeolithic artefacts in Deccan trap areas may be more related to the destruction of basalt artefacts that remained on the surface. Basalt, being the most weatherable rock type, deteriorates more rapidly, while quartzite is more resistant to weathering. Thus, the geology and ecology of the region plays a crucial role in preservation of fossils along with the study of evolution; and Narmada Valley definitely stands unique among the other sites in the subcontinent.
Case Study: Hathnora
The Narmada Valley is one of the most extensively studied river valleys in India due to its anthropological, archaeological, geological, historical, paleontological, and religious significance. Over the past 150 years, this basin has attracted the attention of numerous scholars, both from India and abroad. Early researchers include Princep (1830s) and Spilsbury (1833, 1837, 1841), followed by De Terra and Paterson (1939), and later several Indian scholars.
A significant moment in this research occurred in 1982 with the discovery of a half skullcap (calvarium) by Arun Sonakia at Hathnora known as the “Narmada Human” who lived in Central India during Middle to Late Pleistocene. This finding sparked a renewed interest among paleoanthropologists and archaeologists studying the Central Narmada Valley. Sonakia concluded that the Narmada Man belongs to the Homo erectus species. However, Kenneth Kennedy classified it as belonging to archaic Homo sapiens, suggesting a complex mix of features from Homo erectus, archaic Homo sapiens, and unique distinctions.
Sankhyan proposed that the Narmada hominin calvarium resembles more closely a “big-brained” species, such as Homo heidelbergensis, or an analogous “archaic” Homo sapiens, rather than Homo erectus. Interestingly, he also noted significant affinities with classical Neanderthals, which he found surprising and difficult to explain. Sankhyan argued that the geographic position of the Narmada Valley, situated mid-way in the Old World, could have served as a corridor for early hominin migrations, possibly facilitating hybridization. This might explain the calvarium’s mosaic of characteristics. Its distinctive features could result from considerable local evolution following hybridization, akin to what occurred among the Neanderthal groups in Europe.
After the discovery of the skullcap, Sankhyan and a group of associates from the Anthropological Survey of India conducted explorations at Hathnora and the surrounding areas from 1983 to 1992. These efforts led to the discovery of two clavicles and a ninth rib from Hathnora, recognized by Sankhyan in 1995. Although the skeletal remains shared characteristics in terms of sex, age, and locality with the calvarium, they were too small to be associated with a “large-headed” hominin. This sparked debate about whether Narmada Man was a “dwarf” or a “pygmy.”
Sankhyan concluded his study by identifying two main types of early archaic hominins in the central Narmada Valley during the Middle to Late Pleistocene. The first type, a “large robust” hominin attributed to Homo heidelbergensis, was prevalent during the Middle Pleistocene and hunted mega mammalian fauna using large flake Acheulian tools. The second type, described as “short and stocky,” likely dates from the later Middle Pleistocene and hunted relatively small game using refined late Acheulian and Middle Palaeolithic implements. This group shows evolutionary continuity leading toward modernity and is believed to have branched out into several short-bodied populations on the Indian mainland, including the
Andaman pygmies. Interestingly, he believes that the so-called “hobbit” of Indonesia, Homo floresiensis, also descended from this line.
Conclusion
The Narmada Valley is one of the richest areas for fossils and cultural materials manufactured by Stone Age Man. This valley has yielded innumerable animal fossils and also a few hominin fossils, which have a direct bearing on the evolution of Man in South Asia. Besides, being a unique mid-continental place in the Old World, Narmada Valley has formed a traditional north and south dividing line. This has been an important path for transmission of the monsoons from southeast to northwest as well as for the faunal migrations from north to the south. That is why the Narmada
Valley houses an admixture of Old and New World elements, initially migrated from outside. Thus, the Narmada fauna brings forth the evidence of endemic and immigrant species crucial for the study of linkages and evolution through the understanding of the dispersal of species within India and in- and out-migration from other geographical regions in time and place.
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