By Tabia Masoodi
When the Indian summer arrives, it does not tiptoe in quietly. It blazes forth, with the world filled with the aroma of wet earth and mangoes, the air shimmering with heat, and sunlight falling in golden sheets. The body longs for relief from the scorching sun, and comfort turns into a quest. The type of fabric becomes the most crucial factor. Spun from the hardy flax plant, linen is a loving companion during this season, providing breathability and cooling when the air itself seems to be at a standstill. There is a certain poetry to linen: its touch is crisp yet soft, its weave loose enough to let the
breeze in, its fibres wicking away the memory of sweat. For centuries, linen has been cherished in lands of searing summers, from the banks of the Nile to the bustling cities and quiet villages of India.
ORIGIN OF LINEN – GLOBAL HISTORY
Linen is humanity's oldest fabric with a rich history spanning thousands of years. It has been in use since prehistoric times. The word linen is derived from the Latin word "Linum", influencing terms like "lining," "lingerie," and "line" as linen threads were used for measuring straight lines. The earliest evidence of linen-like fibres was discovered in a cave in modern-day Georgia, where dyed flax fibres dating to approximately 36,000 years ago were found, suggesting prehistoric humans had already begun processing flax fibres for fabric-like use. By around 8,000 BCE, flax fibres, yarns, and woven fabrics appeared in Neolithic European sites such as Swiss lake dwellings and Fragments of linen were discovered in tombs at the Anatolian settlement of Çatalhöyük, suggesting that the cloth was used for both utilitarian and ceremonial purposes. The flax plant (Linum usitatissimum), from which linen is made, was among the first plants cultivated for textile production, and its fibres were valued for their strength, breathability, and durability.
Ancient civilisations further developed linen production, with Egypt becoming a major centre for its cultivation and use. The Nile River's fertile floodplains provided ideal conditions for growing flax, and linen became deeply embedded in Egyptian culture. It was used extensively for clothing suited to the hot climate and for wrapping mummies, symbolising purity and status. The Tarkhan dress, dating back over 5,000 years, from Egypt's first dynasty, is one of the oldest known woven garments, entirely made of linen.
Linen was also used in ancient Mesopotamia, where the elite and priests primarily wore it, and it appears in Sumerian literature, highlighting its social significance. The fabric's importance extended beyond clothing; for example, linen was used in the barter system as a form of wages or tribute in Egypt and as a material for composite armour, such as the linothorax worn by Alexander the Great, made from layered linen soaked in flaxseed oil to
create hardened protection.
The spread of linen into Europe is attributed to Phoenician traders around 3000 BCE, and by the Middle Ages, linen production flourished in countries like France, Germany, and the Low Countries, with innovations such as the fine weaving technique emerging in 13th-century France.
INDIAN HISTORY OF LINEN:
India's history with linen is woven into the very fabric of the country. It is more than just a garment for Indians; it is rooted in ritual, religion, rites of passage, and both birth and death. The earliest evidence of flax use is found at multiple sites of the Indus Valley civilisation. Archaeological and palaeobotanical evidence from various Indus sites confirms the cultivation and use of flax (the source of linen) as early as 2850 BCE, notably at Kunal in Haryana(Bhardwaj, 2024). Linseed and flax seeds have been recovered from various Indus Valley Civilisation sites such as Babar Kot, Balathal, Kunal, Harappa, and Mohenjo-Daro, indicating that flax was grown alongside cotton, wool, silk, and jute(Nath,2019). While cotton was the dominant textile fibre in the Indus Valley, flax was also used, likely for linen production.
Linen is mentioned in various Indian texts from mythological epics to legal and economic texts and later literary texts. The Vedas, Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Dharmashastram, Manusmriti, Puranas, and Buddhist texts all describe the linen fabric and its allure. The Vedic period references linen through the Sanskrit literature, where it is called Ksauma. The importance of linen in India is evident from Ayurveda, which specifies the use of linen in wrapping the newborn baby, as it provides the care and affection of a mother. Atharvaveda informs us about the requirement that young males wear linen garments and sacred threads stained with turmeric during initiation (upanayana). The Maitrayani Samhita talks about linen clothing. The three unstitched Vedic garments—the uttariya, antariya, and kayabandh—were composed of linen and embellished with valuable stones and gold embroidery(Pandey, 2016).
The Ramayana describes linen as a fabric of beauty, holiness, and royal importance that is worn by Rama himself on the day of his coronation as well as by queens and courtesans during rituals. The draping of King Ravana's body during cremation, which was reminiscent of the linen used in Egyptian mummification and represented purity and transition, is an example of how linen was used in burial rites. These instances highlight the ceremonial and ritual significance of linen, signifying life events from birth to demise. The Mahabharata mentions linen as a garment reserved for elites, special occasions and royal gifts. Yudhishthira chose linen fabric for his ritual for sovereignty (Ashwamedha), and he received linen, as a gift, from the people of the eastern region, including Kalinga, Pundra (Bengal), Vanga, and Tamralipta. Legal and theological texts such as the Dharmashastra and Manusmriti established their significance in ritual purity, tying it to sacred threads and ceremonial clothes. Linen is mentioned in Buddhist writings such as the Mahavagga, Lalitavistara, and Acaranga as a preferred fabric for monks and ascetics because it represents simplicity and discipline. This devotion is reflected in technical literature, such as Panini's Ashtadhyayi (5th century BCE), which mentions weaving techniques and methods, implying a sophisticated textile history. Kautilya's Arthashastra (3rd century BCE) emphasises linen's economic significance by outlining organised production processes, official monitoring, and the role of skilled artisans. Linen's impact extended to international trade, with Mesopotamian documents referring to Indian textiles from "Meluhha," demonstrating its broad influence. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes in detail the commerce of pure linen, silk, yarn, thin, flimsy material, and finest weaves from the Indian subcontinent to Egypt, Italy, and Malaysia, during the Satavahana Era, through navigation.
Gupta-era literature also talks about the finest textile, linen, as a fabric of the elites. The legendary poet Kalidas portrays the beauty and appeal of linen in his Raghuvamsa. The dukula, often synonymous or closely related to kṣauma, refers to a fine linen or bark-based fabric praised in Gupta period literature and works by many poets like Kalidas and Amarsimha. Bengal was a noted production centre for such textiles. Amarsimha in his
Amarkosha, a Sanskrit thesaurus, lists terms related to linen and called dukula and ksauma, synonyms.
Hieun Tsang, a Chinese traveller, wrote about linen in his work Si-Yu-Ki(Records of the Western World). He mentions that King Harsha used linen fabric, not only as clothing but as a decor for his palace as well, along with silk and cotton. This highlights the importance of linen beyond garments.
Despite having such an enduring history of linen, Indian linen saw a great decline due to a variety of reasons, including the scalability of cotton and colonisation. During the colonial period, British policies favoured cotton and jute production, leading to the establishment of large-scale mills in Bombay, Bengal, and other regions. Linen, which required different processing techniques and was less suited to the mass-production methods of the time, became less visible in the Indian textile industry. The traditional textiles of India suffered greatly. Cotton was cheaper to produce and better suited for mass production. Compared to linen, cotton has a more widespread production due to climatic and soil preferences.
GLOBALISATION OF INDIAN LINEN:
India's globalisation of linen is a relatively modern phenomenon rooted in its ancient textile heritage but catalysed by industrial advances in the mid-20th century. While linen fibres and fabrics have been known in India since ancient times, large-scale linen production and global trade began with the establishment of Jaya Shree Textiles in 1949, India's first integrated linen manufacturing facility. Equipped with advanced European technology for spinning, weaving, and finishing, this plant marked India's entry into the global linen market and laid the foundation for the country's rise as a significant linen producer and exporter.
Before this industrial milestone, linen was primarily imported or produced on a small scale, with cotton dominating India's textile landscape. The introduction of Jaya Shree Textiles not only popularised linen domestically through its Linen Club brand but also enabled India to compete internationally by producing high-quality linen fabrics at competitive prices. Indian linen producers offer a variety of textures, weaves, and blends such as linen-cotton and linen- silk that appeal to international fashion and home textile markets by fusing traditional weaving techniques with contemporary innovations while also being eco-conscience.
India's linen exports have grown steadily, reaching markets such as the USA, UK, France, Italy, and Australia. Indian linen fabrics are increasingly used by high-fashion brands and sustainable home décor companies, reflecting the country's influence on global fashion trends. 2013 saw an increase in the volume of linen fabric by over 20% (The Times of India, 2024). The competitive pricing, customisation options, and adherence to international quality standards make Indian linen attractive to global buyers. This globalisation is also facilitated by India's historical reputation for textile craftsmanship, which adds cultural value to its linen products.
India's integration into the global linen economy also connects to the broader history of textile trade from the subcontinent. Historically, Indian textiles were major export commodities in pre-industrial global trade, reaching Europe, Southeast Asia, and beyond through maritime routes established by Portuguese, Dutch, and British traders from the 16th century onward. While cotton and silk were the dominant fibres historically, with
comparatively fewer accounts of linen trade, the recent large-scale production of linen has allowed India to diversify its textile exports and meet contemporary global demands for sustainable fabrics.
Indian linen's globalisation is the result of fusing traditional textile skills with contemporary industrial capacity. Since 1949, India has grown from a small importer and user of linen to a significant producer and exporter of linen worldwide. India's growing position in the global textile industry is reflected in the rise of Indian linen, which is fuelled by sustainable methods, high-quality manufacturing, and an expanding presence in international fashion and home textile markets.
References:
Bartell, Gregory S., et al. "Reconstructing Ancient Linen Body Armor: Unraveling the Linothorax Mystery." American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 118, no. 3, 2014, p. NA. ajaonline.org, https://ajaonline.org/book-review/1833/.
MAP Academy. "Linen." mapacademy.io, 31 December 2024, https://mapacademy.io/article/linen/. Accessed 03 May 2025.
Akin, Danny E. "Linen most useful: perspectives on structure, chemistry, and enzymes for retting flax." ISRN biotechnology vol. 2013 186534. 30 Dec. 2012, doi:10.5402/2013/186534.
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Bhardwaj, P., 2024. Unravelling the Threads of the Indus Valley Civilisation: A Study of Textiles and Their Chronology. JETIR, 11(2), February. Available at: https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2402540.pdf
Nath, A., 2019. Harappan Textiles and Tools of the Trait from Rakhigarhi, Haryana. Textiles and Clothing Research Centre e-Journal, 3(5), pp.3–10. Available at https://www.tcrc.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Article_1_AN.pd
Pandey, R., 2016. History of Linen in the Indian Subcontinent. Agropedia, 27 September.
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Beal, S. (2001). Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World: Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsiang (A.D. 629). Translated by S. Beal. London: Routledge. Available at: https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.107447
The Times of India. "Linen: Politicians Get Their Fashion Quotient Right With Linen | Pune News." Times of India, 28 April 2024,
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